IUCN Status: Endangered
Being an apex predator, dholes have problems that are very similar to other top predators around the world: access to enough prey, enough space or habitat for them to raise their young and have enough prey to live there, access to land with minimal human impact, and conflict with humans due to the way they make their livelihood. This negative relationship has left dholes labeled as vermin and it has given them a bad reputation throughout their native range (Acharya 2007). Dholes also live with two other top predators: the tiger and the leopard, which could cause competition for resources. One thing that tigers and leopards do not have to deal with that is a constant struggle for dholes is global recognition. Almost any fifth-grader knowns about the tiger and the leopard, but very few know what a dhole is. Combined with the potential for disease transmission from local feral dogs, it looks like the dhole has a steep upward struggle, but they got something that will truly help them survive and come back, and that’s the canine ability to adapt and adjust to the changing world.
Threats
Land Use
“Throughout the world, the major cause of mortality of wide-ranging large carnivores is conflict with humans on the edge of protect areas. Because of their high energy requirement, the territories of these carnivore large and they are therefore exposed to threats that reserve boundaries. Carnivores are killed through hunting and poisoning, collisions with vehicles, and disease from domestic animals” (Woodroffe and Ginsberg 1998)
The dhole just happens to live in some of the most densely populated area of the world, with China and India accounting for roughly 36% of the world’s population. This means there is a greater need for housing and food for those large populations; both of those require large areas of land. In recent years, many Asian countries have been working hard on their conservation efforts for their native species, creating reserves and parks for their protection. However, sometimes these parks are too spread out to allow for animals to move between parks and reserves, and the parks might be too small to house a self-sustaining population of large carnivore. Still, in some areas, much of the suitable habitat for dholes has already been repurposed. In Thailand, it’s estimated that 7% of the total land area of the country is suitable for dholes, as of 2012, and only 1/3 of that 7% is currently in protected areas (Jenks 2012). That means that 2/3 of the suitable dhole habitat left in Thailand is not currently protected.
Almost all the dhole’s problems can be summed up in one big problem: lack of habitat.
The dhole just happens to live in some of the most densely populated area of the world, with China and India accounting for roughly 36% of the world’s population. This means there is a greater need for housing and food for those large populations; both of those require large areas of land. In recent years, many Asian countries have been working hard on their conservation efforts for their native species, creating reserves and parks for their protection. However, sometimes these parks are too spread out to allow for animals to move between parks and reserves, and the parks might be too small to house a self-sustaining population of large carnivore. Still, in some areas, much of the suitable habitat for dholes has already been repurposed. In Thailand, it’s estimated that 7% of the total land area of the country is suitable for dholes, as of 2012, and only 1/3 of that 7% is currently in protected areas (Jenks 2012). That means that 2/3 of the suitable dhole habitat left in Thailand is not currently protected.
Almost all the dhole’s problems can be summed up in one big problem: lack of habitat.
Conflicts with Tigers and leopards
“In the tropical forest habitats of southern Asia, tigers, leopards and dholes form a three-species predator assemblage over a large region. All three are morphologically specialized for killing prey larger than themselves.”(Karanth 1999). When there are three predators in the same area relying on the same prey and resources, you’d expect the competition to be high and to negatively impact one or all three animals involved. However, when the relationship between all three of these top predators was looked at, it appeared that the three occupied the same space with little direct impact on each other.
Prey choice in size was one of the first things studied. It turns out that tigers prefer to take larger prey items when available—prey that was larger than 175kg. Being smaller, leopards and dholes often took medium-sized prey when available, medium size being 31 to 175kg (Karanth 1999). Dholes also have a preference within their prey selections. For example, dholes will target male chital while leopards do not show a preference (Venkataraman 1995).
Even the space tolerance between the three is relatively high. On one occasion, it was noted that dholes were feeding while a tiger rested less than 50 meters away (Katanth 1999). In one study, it was shown that out of four documented interactions between leopards and dholes, each one ended with the leopard up a tree and the dholes unharmed. The one documented interaction between tigers and dholes showed the two mutually avoiding each other. In general, dholes and tigers avoid each other while dholes will actively engaged with leopards. This might be due to the fact leopards will predate on a lone dhole so encounters where the pack mobs a leopard might help deter leopards from the area (Venkataraman 1995). These encounters between dholes and leopards often end with the dholes treeing the leopard; they are able to keep the leopard up the tree or bush for some time (Venkatarman 1995). It would appear the dominance hierarchy would put dhole packs and tigers social dominant over leopards (Karanth 1999)
Prey choice in size was one of the first things studied. It turns out that tigers prefer to take larger prey items when available—prey that was larger than 175kg. Being smaller, leopards and dholes often took medium-sized prey when available, medium size being 31 to 175kg (Karanth 1999). Dholes also have a preference within their prey selections. For example, dholes will target male chital while leopards do not show a preference (Venkataraman 1995).
Even the space tolerance between the three is relatively high. On one occasion, it was noted that dholes were feeding while a tiger rested less than 50 meters away (Katanth 1999). In one study, it was shown that out of four documented interactions between leopards and dholes, each one ended with the leopard up a tree and the dholes unharmed. The one documented interaction between tigers and dholes showed the two mutually avoiding each other. In general, dholes and tigers avoid each other while dholes will actively engaged with leopards. This might be due to the fact leopards will predate on a lone dhole so encounters where the pack mobs a leopard might help deter leopards from the area (Venkataraman 1995). These encounters between dholes and leopards often end with the dholes treeing the leopard; they are able to keep the leopard up the tree or bush for some time (Venkatarman 1995). It would appear the dominance hierarchy would put dhole packs and tigers social dominant over leopards (Karanth 1999)
Disease and conflict with Feral dogs
Disease is a significant threat across the dholes’ home range and in some islands of Indonesia. Dholes can get many of the common canine disease, like rabies, canine distemper, mange, trypanosomiasis and parvo (Durbin 2009). In the 1940s, a rabies outbreak in an India village resulted in cattle and dogs getting bitten by rabid dogs (Morris 1942). This not only impacted the dhole populations by disease its self but it also helped to perpetuate the perception that dholes are a threat to humans and property. One way dholes in the region might have gotten rabies is through feral dogs; it’s known that dholes will get into fights with dogs (Williams 1935), but dholes will also hunt with feral dogs (Davidar 1965) either way, this close contact with dogs means dholes are more susceptible to getting disease that are common to the domestic dog.
Livestock Conflict
In many areas, this is the main reason for dhole population decline. Oftentimes, dholes do not target livestock, opting for native and wild animals instead, but when those prey numbers are low, dholes will take livestock like goats, sheep and cattle (Venkataraman 1995). In northeastern Nepal, 80% of all livestock are taken by dholes (Khatiwada 2001). Livestock lost in Bhutan amounted to more than one domestic animal lost per family to either a dhole, a leopard or a tiger; this adds up to more than two-thirds of the yearly income (Wang and Macdonald 2006). In India, dholes account for more livestock taken than tigers, with scat analysis showing that 10% of a dhole’s diet can consist of livestock (Lyngdoh 2014); however, this is mainly where livestock is present. In areas where there is no livestock or native prey is high, that parentage is closer to zero (Aiyadurai 2003).
There is also cultural implications to dholes taking livestock. In the Arunachal Paresh, one of the last strongholds for wild dholes, there is an ongoing conflict between herders and dholes. The herders in the area keep domestic cattle and also a cattle/gaur-cross called mithun. Mithun are both economically and culturally important to the communities there, as can be seen in the table below of the payouts for compensation:
There is also cultural implications to dholes taking livestock. In the Arunachal Paresh, one of the last strongholds for wild dholes, there is an ongoing conflict between herders and dholes. The herders in the area keep domestic cattle and also a cattle/gaur-cross called mithun. Mithun are both economically and culturally important to the communities there, as can be seen in the table below of the payouts for compensation:
|
Species:
Mithun Pig Cattle Goat |
Payout Paid in $ USD
300 75 60 40 |
Most of the people interviewed blamed dholes for 70% of all livestock depredations, a total of which 75% were mithun (Lyngdoh 2014). It was found that only 10.1% of the dholes’ diet was livestock in the area (Lyngdoh 2014), even with the local area documented to have low wild prey availability (Babu and Venkataraman 2001). Due to its cultural status, villagers were more likely to retaliate against dholes when a mithun was taken as opposed to cattle or a goat. Mithun are more susceptible to dhole attacks do to the fact they are free-ranged cattle and not herded in at night like other livestock (Lyngdoh 2014, Fox 1974).
In Nepal, the problem echoes like much of southern Asia: there is little native prey for dholes but there is available livestock. Dholes do not inhabit near the overnight livestock shelters, but rather take livestock that is out in the grazing field and away from the eye of the herder. Because dholes take livestock in this region, almost all herders have a negative view on dholes, and of those interviewed, more that 79% reported conducting retaliatory killing of dholes (Aryal 2015). Most of the herders in the area rely on their animals to support their families. This means the loss of one animal can be disastrous for a family (Khatiwada 2010).
In Nepal, the problem echoes like much of southern Asia: there is little native prey for dholes but there is available livestock. Dholes do not inhabit near the overnight livestock shelters, but rather take livestock that is out in the grazing field and away from the eye of the herder. Because dholes take livestock in this region, almost all herders have a negative view on dholes, and of those interviewed, more that 79% reported conducting retaliatory killing of dholes (Aryal 2015). Most of the herders in the area rely on their animals to support their families. This means the loss of one animal can be disastrous for a family (Khatiwada 2010).
Conservation Conflicts
Livestock isn’t the only problem that hunting causes the dhole. Sometimes, the prey that dholes hunt are also endangered or are a vital part of the local economy. Here are three examples of when dhole conservation had either a direct or a perceived negative impact on other conservation projects.
In Java, dholes are holding on, but they rely on prey that is barely holding on itself. The local benteng population was crashing. Some years saw no successful offspring being reared. With no tigers left on the island and leopards often avoiding the larger prey, blame was placed on the dhole. This time it was rightly so. When dhole numbers were reduced, the benteng reproduction increased (Pudyatmoko and Sabarno 2007). In this case, dhole were the direct cause for decreasing benteng numbers, but there were other indirect causes that first led to low benteng numbers and to the decrease in other prey species; the main cause was human development.
In Java, dholes are holding on, but they rely on prey that is barely holding on itself. The local benteng population was crashing. Some years saw no successful offspring being reared. With no tigers left on the island and leopards often avoiding the larger prey, blame was placed on the dhole. This time it was rightly so. When dhole numbers were reduced, the benteng reproduction increased (Pudyatmoko and Sabarno 2007). In this case, dhole were the direct cause for decreasing benteng numbers, but there were other indirect causes that first led to low benteng numbers and to the decrease in other prey species; the main cause was human development.
Human Perception
Due to the way dholes kill and due to the fact that they often eat their prey before it may have died, dholes have been unjustly persecuted in the past, and that continues today (Acharya 2007). Before they were granted protection, India offered bounties for every dhole killed (Davidar 1986). The hunting of dholes was also encouraged due to the fact that they competed with humans for game animals, and it was often thought that dholes could decimate whole herds of game animals (Burton 1899; Phythian-Adams 1939). Early Europeans would often call them vermin and “brute beasts,” not just for how they took down prey and hurt game animals but also for their potential negative impact on the leopard and tiger populations the hunters enjoyed hunting (Caton Jones 1908). Even from kid stories, dholes have not been shown in a positive light. In Rudyard Kipling The Jungle Book, a dhole or a “red dog” was shown in the story as a threat to Mowgli’s wolf pack.
Not all perception is negative, however. In some cultures, dholes are seen as caring and loving due to the fact they share their food with each other. In these areas, locals are reluctant to destroy dholes (Morris 1927).
Not all perception is negative, however. In some cultures, dholes are seen as caring and loving due to the fact they share their food with each other. In these areas, locals are reluctant to destroy dholes (Morris 1927).
Conservation Efforts
Captive Breeding
Dholes have been in captivity for over a century. The first recorded captive breeding took place in Wroclaw Zoo in 1909 (Gewalt 1978). Captive breeding has allowed for more of the public to see and become aware of dholes, but this does pose some challenges. Dholes can be hard to contain in captivity; they are capably of jumping two meters vertically from a standing position. They can climb up chain link fences and dig under it, meaning they need an overhang or dig wire to prevent escape. They are also great swimmers, so moat systems that work for other animals might not work well for dholes. Because dholes are pack breeders and need many non-breeding animals to reproduce successfully, they require a much larger exhibit and a larger population size to be sustainable. Currently, there are 38 zoos that participate in a global population plan, with a total of 353 animals. However, not all genetics are known for this population, and some have a small founding population, meaning the genetic variation is minimal. The value of captive dholes for potential reintroduction efforts is not known at this time, partly due to genetics of the current captive populations but also due to the fact there is still a taxonomical debate on the wild dhole population (IUCN 2015).
Filling in the Information Gap
Areas that still need exploring: Pup and young adult mortality rate? What is the live volume of food dholes need to be sustainable? What is the minimal amount of space needed, mechanisms of breeding systems, methods of dispersal, population regulations, and reproduction suppression?
